Conciliarism is a theological and ecclesiastical movement that emerged in the late Middle Ages, advocating that the authority of ecumenical councils in the Church should be superior to that of the Pope. The movement sought to address issues of corruption and the need for reform within the Roman Catholic Church, particularly during periods of crisis such as the Western Schism.

Historical Context

Conciliarism arose as a response to the challenges faced by the Church in the 14th and 15th centuries, particularly during the Western Schism (1378-1417), when multiple claimants to the papacy emerged, leading to a division within the Church. This schism created a crisis of authority, as different factions supported different popes. The question of how to resolve such conflicts and maintain the unity of the Church led to the development of conciliarist ideas.

The Western Schism

The Western Schism began in 1378 when two rival popes were elected: one in Rome and the other in Avignon. This division caused significant turmoil within the Church, as different regions and political entities aligned themselves with different popes. The schism lasted for nearly 40 years, undermining the credibility and unity of the papacy.

In response to this crisis, some theologians and church leaders began to argue that the authority of an ecumenical council, representing the entire Church, should supersede that of the pope. This idea was grounded in the belief that the Church as a whole, through its collective wisdom, was better equipped to resolve such disputes and to enact necessary reforms.

Key Councils and Conciliarist Ideas

The idea of conciliarism was most prominently manifested in three key councils: the Council of Pisa (1409), the Council of Constance (1414-1418), and the Council of Basel (1431-1449).

• Council of Pisa (1409): The Council of Pisa attempted to resolve the Western Schism by deposing both the Roman and Avignon popes and electing a new pope, Alexander V. However, this action was not universally recognized, leading to a situation where there were three competing popes.
• Council of Constance (1414-1418): The Council of Constance successfully ended the Western Schism by deposing all three claimants to the papacy and electing Pope Martin V. The council also issued the decree Haec Sancta, which declared that an ecumenical council has authority directly from Christ and that all Christians, including the pope, are bound to obey it. This decree is a central expression of conciliarist thought.
• Council of Basel (1431-1449): The Council of Basel further developed conciliarist ideas, asserting the authority of councils over the pope and attempting to enact church reforms. However, the council’s authority was eventually undermined by Pope Eugene IV, who dissolved it and convened the Council of Florence, marking a decline in the influence of conciliarism.

Theological and Ecclesiological Implications

The Authority of Councils vs. the Papacy

Conciliarism represents a significant challenge to the traditional Roman Catholic understanding of papal supremacy. Traditionally, the pope has been seen as the supreme authority in the Church, with the power to convene and ratify the decisions of ecumenical councils. Conciliarism, however, posits that an ecumenical council, as a representation of the whole Church, holds ultimate authority, even over the pope.

This perspective is rooted in a different understanding of ecclesiology, where the Church is viewed as a community of believers with a collective responsibility for governance and decision-making. Conciliarists argued that this collective authority could better address the needs of the Church, especially in times of crisis.

Biblical and Theological Foundations

Conciliarists often pointed to the early Church and the example of the Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15) as a model for their ideas. In this council, the apostles and elders gathered to discuss and resolve a major doctrinal issue, with the decisions being accepted by the whole Church. This example was seen as evidence that councils have a legitimate role in guiding the Church and making binding decisions.

However, the traditional Catholic view emphasizes the primacy of Peter, and by extension, the pope as his successor. Jesus’ words to Peter in Matthew 16:18-19, where He says, “And I tell you that you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven,” are interpreted as establishing the unique authority of the papacy.

The Decline of Conciliarism

Conciliarism faced significant opposition from the papacy, which sought to reassert its authority following the Western Schism. The decline of conciliarism began with the Council of Florence (1431-1449), where Pope Eugene IV successfully reasserted papal authority and marginalized the Council of Basel.

The doctrine of papal supremacy was later solidified at the First Vatican Council (1869-1870), which defined the doctrine of papal infallibility when speaking ex cathedra on matters of faith and morals. This marked the definitive rejection of conciliarist ideas within the Roman Catholic Church.

Historical Christian Perspectives

Augustine

Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430) lived long before the conciliarist movement emerged, but his writings on the nature of the Church and authority were influential in later debates. Augustine emphasized the unity of the Church under the authority of its leaders, particularly the bishops, but he also recognized the importance of councils in resolving doctrinal disputes. His views were often cited by both sides in later discussions on church authority.

Reformation and Beyond

The Protestant Reformation in the 16th century brought about a new set of challenges to the authority of the papacy, though it did not directly align with conciliarism. Reformers like Martin Luther and John Calvin rejected the authority of the pope and councils alike, instead advocating for the authority of Scripture alone (sola scriptura). However, the Reformation did share with conciliarism a desire for reform and a critique of the centralized power of the papacy.

Conciliarist ideas continued to influence some movements within Christianity, particularly those that emphasized a more collegial or democratic approach to church governance. However, the mainstream acceptance of conciliarism waned as the papacy reasserted its authority.

Relevance for Today’s Christian

For modern Christians, conciliarism serves as a historical example of the ongoing tension between centralized authority and collective decision-making within the Church. It raises important questions about how authority should be exercised in the Church and how the Church can maintain unity while addressing the need for reform.

In some Christian traditions, particularly those with synodal or conciliar forms of governance, the legacy of conciliarism can still be seen. These traditions emphasize the role of councils or assemblies in making decisions and maintaining accountability within the Church.

For Christians today, the lessons of conciliarism may encourage a more participatory approach to church governance, where the voices of the broader Christian community are heard and respected, even as the Church seeks to remain faithful to its doctrinal and spiritual foundations.

Conclusion: Connection to God’s Love and Jesus Christ

Conciliarism, while a specific historical movement, reflects broader questions about how the Church can faithfully represent the will of Christ in its governance. The Church is called to be the body of Christ, united in purpose and mission, as expressed in Ephesians 4:15-16:

| “Instead, speaking the truth in love, we will grow to become in every respect the mature body of him who is the head, that is, Christ. From him the whole body, joined and held together by every supporting ligament, grows and builds itself up in love, as each part does its work.”
| —Ephesians 4:15-16 (NIV)

This passage reminds believers that the Church, in all its structures and decisions, must seek to grow into the fullness of Christ, motivated by love and guided by His truth. Whether through councils, synods, or other forms of governance, the goal is to reflect the love of Christ, to build up His body, and to faithfully carry out His mission in the world.