What is Iconography?
Iconography is the use and study of religious images or icons, particularly in the context of Christian art and worship. These icons serve as visual representations of sacred figures, events, and concepts, often playing a central role in the liturgical and devotional life of various Christian traditions, especially in Eastern Orthodoxy and, to a lesser extent, Roman Catholicism. Iconography is not merely decorative; it is deeply theological, with each icon intended to convey spiritual truths and to facilitate a connection between the believer and the divine. From a Christian biblical worldview, iconography is both a reflection of the incarnation of Christ—God made visible in human form—and a tool for worship, though its use has been historically debated within the Church.
Biblical Background and Context
The Use of Images in the Old Testament
The use of religious images in worship has been a contentious issue since the time of the Old Testament. The Second Commandment explicitly prohibits the making of graven images for worship.
Exodus 20:4-5 (NIV):
“You shall not make for yourself an image in the form of anything in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the waters below. You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I, the Lord your God, am a jealous God…”
This commandment was intended to guard against idolatry, a persistent temptation for the Israelites, who were surrounded by cultures that worshiped idols. However, there were exceptions where God commanded the creation of specific images for use in the tabernacle and the temple.
Exodus 25:18-20 (NIV):
“And make two cherubim out of hammered gold at the ends of the cover. Make one cherub on one end and the second cherub on the other; make the cherubim of one piece with the cover, at the two ends.”
These cherubim, part of the Ark of the Covenant, were not objects of worship but symbolic representations meant to remind the Israelites of God’s holiness and presence.
The Incarnation and Christian Iconography
The theological foundation for Christian iconography is deeply rooted in the doctrine of the Incarnation—the belief that God became visible in the person of Jesus Christ.
John 1:14 (NIV):
“The Word became flesh and made his dwelling among us. We have seen his glory, the glory of the one and only Son, who came from the Father, full of grace and truth.”
This verse emphasizes that in Jesus, the invisible God took on a visible, tangible form. Early Christians argued that because God had taken on human flesh, it was permissible to depict Christ in images. This principle was extended to other holy figures, with icons being seen as windows into the spiritual world, allowing believers to venerate the saints and, through them, to honor God.
Historical Development of Iconography
Early Christian Art and the Development of Icons
Early Christian art, which emerged in the catacombs and other places of worship, often used symbolic imagery, such as the fish (ichthys), the Good Shepherd, and the chi-rho, to convey Christian messages without direct depictions of Christ or saints. This was partly due to the influence of Jewish aniconism (opposition to images) and partly due to the fear of persecution.
As Christianity became more accepted and eventually the state religion of the Roman Empire, more explicit representations of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and the saints began to appear. The development of icons as we know them today began to take shape, particularly in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), where they became central to both public and private worship.
St. John of Damascus, On the Divine Images:
“I do not worship matter, I worship the Creator of matter who became matter for my sake, who willed to take his abode in matter, who worked out my salvation through matter.”
St. John of Damascus was a strong defender of the use of icons, arguing that since Christ became incarnate in the material world, it was fitting to use material images to represent and honor Him.
The Iconoclast Controversy
The use of icons became a major point of contention in the Church during the 8th and 9th centuries, leading to the Iconoclast Controversy. The Iconoclasts (those who opposed the use of icons) argued that icons were a form of idolatry and violated the Second Commandment. The Iconophiles (those who supported the use of icons) countered that icons were not worshiped but venerated, and that they served as important tools for teaching and devotion.
The controversy was largely resolved at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 AD, where the veneration of icons was affirmed. The council distinguished between latria (worship, due to God alone) and dulia (veneration, which could be given to saints and their images). The decision at Nicaea II solidified the place of icons in Eastern Orthodox Christianity, where they continue to play a central role.
Second Council of Nicaea, 787 AD:
“We decree with full precision and care that, like the figure of the precious and life-giving cross, the venerable and holy images, whether painted or made of mosaic or other suitable material, are to be exposed in the holy churches of God, on sacred vessels and vestments, walls and panels, in houses and by public ways.”
This decree formally legitimized the use of icons in Christian worship, distinguishing them from idols and establishing guidelines for their proper use.
Iconography in Western Christianity
While the use of icons became highly developed in Eastern Christianity, Western Christianity, particularly after the Protestant Reformation, took a different approach. The Reformation brought a backlash against what was seen as the excessive use of images in Catholic worship, leading to the iconoclasm of many Protestant groups. Reformers like John Calvin argued against the use of images in worship, emphasizing the importance of the Word of God over visual representations.
John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion (Book I, Chapter 11):
“For the simple reason that it is impossible to represent God properly, and that whatever image you make is an idol if you worship it.”
Calvin’s view reflects the Reformed tradition’s emphasis on the spiritual dangers of idolatry and the sufficiency of Scripture.
However, in Roman Catholicism, iconography and religious art continued to flourish, particularly during the Counter-Reformation, when the Church used art to inspire devotion and teach the faithful.
Theological Perspectives on Iconography
The Doctrine of the Incarnation
The central theological justification for Christian iconography is the doctrine of the Incarnation. By becoming human in the person of Jesus Christ, God made Himself visible and therefore representable. Icons are seen as a continuation of this incarnational principle, making the divine accessible to the senses.
Colossians 1:15 (NIV):
“The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation.”
This verse highlights the idea that Jesus is the visible image of the invisible God, providing a theological foundation for the use of visual representations in Christian worship.
Icons as “Windows to Heaven”
In Eastern Orthodox theology, icons are often described as “windows to heaven.” They are not just artistic representations but are considered to be sacramental, meaning that they convey the presence of the person depicted. The veneration of icons is not directed to the material image itself but to the prototype it represents, whether that be Christ, the Virgin Mary, or the saints.
Hebrews 12:1 (NIV):
“Therefore, since we are surrounded by such a great cloud of witnesses, let us throw off everything that hinders and the sin that so easily entangles.”
Icons serve as reminders of the “cloud of witnesses” that surrounds the believer, visually connecting the earthly Church with the heavenly reality.
The Role of Tradition
The use of icons is deeply rooted in Christian tradition, particularly within Eastern Orthodoxy. The veneration of icons is seen as a practice handed down from the apostles and the early Church, supported by the writings of the Church Fathers and the decisions of ecumenical councils.
2 Thessalonians 2:15 (NIV):
“So then, brothers and sisters, stand firm and hold fast to the teachings we passed on to you, whether by word of mouth or by letter.”
This passage underscores the importance of tradition in the life of the Church, which includes the use of icons as part of the Church’s liturgical and devotional practices.
Practical Implications of Iconography
Worship and Devotion
Icons play a central role in the worship and devotional life of many Christians, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic traditions. They are used in personal prayer, church services, and liturgical processions, serving as focal points for meditation and prayer.
Psalm 95:6 (NIV):
“Come, let us bow down in worship, let us kneel before the Lord our Maker.”
While the psalmist’s call to worship is directed toward God, icons serve as aids in this process, helping to lift the mind and heart toward the divine.
Education and Evangelism
In addition to their role in worship, icons have historically served an educational purpose. In times when literacy was low, icons were used to teach the stories of the Bible and the lives of the saints. They continue to be a valuable tool for evangelism and catechesis, visually conveying the truths of the Christian faith.
Deuteronomy 6:6-7 (NIV):
“These commandments that I give you today are to be on your hearts. Impress them on your children. Talk about them when you sit at home and when you walk along the road, when you lie down and when you get up.”
Icons can be seen as visual aids that help impress the truths of the faith on the hearts of believers, serving as a means of passing down the teachings of the Church.
Controversy and Criticism
While icons are revered in some Christian traditions, they have been the subject of controversy and criticism in others. The Protestant Reformation, in particular, brought a strong reaction against the use of religious images, leading to iconoclasm in many regions. The debate over iconography continues in some circles, with discussions often centered on the proper use of images in worship and the potential for idolatry.
Isaiah 42:8 (NIV):
“I am the Lord; that is my name! I will not yield my glory to another or my praise to idols.”
This verse reflects the concern that some Christians have about the potential for icons to become objects of worship, rather than aids to worship.
Broader Biblical Themes
The Image of God
The use of icons is closely related to the biblical theme of the “image of God.” Humanity is created in the image of God (Genesis 1:27), and this concept is reflected in the use of icons, which depict the God-man Jesus Christ and the saints who are being transformed into His likeness.
2 Corinthians 3:18 (NIV):
“And we all, who with unveiled faces contemplate the Lord’s glory, are being transformed into his image with ever-increasing glory, which comes from the Lord, who is the Spirit.”
Icons are seen as a way of contemplating the glory of the Lord, facilitating the believer’s transformation into His image.
The Worship of God Alone
The biblical prohibition against idolatry is a key theme in discussions about iconography. While the veneration of icons is distinct from the worship of God, this distinction must be carefully maintained to avoid confusion and ensure that all honor and worship are directed to God alone.
Revelation 19:10 (NIV):
“At this I fell at his feet to worship him. But he said to me, ‘Don’t do that! I am a fellow servant with you and with your brothers and sisters who hold to the testimony of Jesus. Worship God!'”
This verse highlights the importance of directing worship to God alone, a principle that underlies the careful theological distinctions made in the veneration of icons.
Conclusion
Iconography is a significant and multifaceted aspect of Christian worship and theology, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox tradition. Rooted in the doctrine of the Incarnation, icons serve as visual representations of the divine, facilitating worship, education, and devotion. Historically, the use of icons has been both defended and contested within the Church, leading to important theological developments and ecclesiastical decisions. While the veneration of icons is central to the spirituality of many Christians, it is also a practice that requires careful theological reflection to maintain the distinction between veneration and worship. As a tool for deepening faith and connecting with the divine, iconography continues to be a vital and meaningful practice in the life of the Church.