Occasionalism is a philosophical doctrine that asserts that God is the only true cause of events in the world, and that what we perceive as causes in the natural world are not real causes but “occasions” for God to act. This view posits that God directly intervenes in every instance of cause and effect, meaning that when one event follows another, it is not due to any inherent causal power in the natural world, but because God wills it to happen that way.

Historical Development of Occasionalism

Islamic Philosophy and Al-Ghazali

The roots of Occasionalism can be traced back to Islamic philosophy, particularly the works of the 11th-century theologian Al-Ghazali.

• Al-Ghazali (1058-1111): Al-Ghazali argued against the concept of natural causality, which was prevalent in the philosophical traditions influenced by Aristotle. In his work The Incoherence of the Philosophers, Al-Ghazali contended that the relationship between cause and effect is not necessary but contingent upon God’s will. According to him, fire does not cause cotton to burn; rather, God causes the burning whenever fire comes into contact with cotton.
  • Surah 6:59: “And with Him are the keys of the unseen; none knows them except Him. And He knows what is on the land and in the sea. Not a leaf falls but that He knows it.” Al-Ghazali’s occasionalism is rooted in the belief in God’s absolute control over all events.

René Descartes and Cartesian Philosophy

In the Western tradition, Occasionalism was developed further by philosophers influenced by René Descartes, particularly those within Cartesian dualism.

• René Descartes (1596-1650): Descartes’ philosophy posited a dualism between mind and body, where the mind is a non-material substance and the body is a material substance. This dualism led to questions about how the mind and body could interact, given their distinct natures.
  • Meditations on First Philosophy: Descartes’ focus on the separation of mind and body created a philosophical problem of interaction, which occasionalists sought to address.
• Nicolas Malebranche (1638-1715): A prominent Cartesian philosopher, Malebranche expanded on Descartes’ ideas by proposing Occasionalism as a solution to the problem of mind-body interaction. He argued that God is the true cause of every event, and that what we perceive as natural causes are merely occasions for God to act.
  • The Search After Truth: Malebranche argued that “God alone is the true cause of everything that happens,” rejecting the notion that created beings have any causal power in themselves.

Criticism and Decline of Occasionalism

Occasionalism faced significant criticism, particularly from philosophers who emphasized the role of natural laws and secondary causes in the world.

• Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716): Leibniz criticized Occasionalism by arguing for the concept of pre-established harmony, where God created the world with a set of natural laws that govern the interactions between substances. Leibniz believed that Occasionalism undermined the consistency and orderliness of the natural world.
  • Theodicy: In his Theodicy, Leibniz proposed that God created a world in which the interactions of all things were pre-established to correspond harmoniously, thus rejecting the need for continuous divine intervention in every event.
• David Hume (1711-1776): Hume’s skepticism about causality also challenged Occasionalism, but from a different angle. Hume argued that what we perceive as cause and effect is merely a habit of thought, not evidence of any necessary connection. His critique undermined both the notion of natural causality and the occasionalist idea of divine causality.
  • An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding: Hume questioned the notion of causality itself, suggesting that our belief in cause and effect is based on habit rather than rational proof.

Theological Reflections on Occasionalism

Divine Sovereignty and Providence

From a Christian worldview, Occasionalism can be seen as a reflection of the belief in God’s absolute sovereignty and providence over creation. The Bible teaches that God is actively involved in the world and that nothing happens outside of His will.

• Colossians 1:16-17: “For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. He is before all things, and in him all things hold together.” This passage underscores the Christian belief that God is not only the Creator but also the sustainer of all things, aligning with the occasionalist view that God is the true cause of all events.
• Hebrews 1:3: “The Son is the radiance of God’s glory and the exact representation of his being, sustaining all things by his powerful word.” This verse emphasizes Christ’s role in upholding the universe, which could be interpreted in occasionalist terms as divine involvement in every aspect of creation.

Miracles and Divine Intervention

Occasionalism can also be linked to the Christian understanding of miracles as instances where God directly intervenes in the natural order.

• John 2:1-11 (The Wedding at Cana): Jesus’ miracle of turning water into wine is an example of God’s direct intervention in the world, bypassing natural processes.
  • John 2:11: “What Jesus did here in Cana of Galilee was the first of the signs through which he revealed his glory; and his disciples believed in him.” This miracle demonstrates God’s power to act directly in the world, consistent with occasionalist thought.

Secondary Causes and God’s Ordained Order

While Occasionalism emphasizes God’s direct causality, Christian theology also traditionally acknowledges the concept of secondary causes—natural processes that operate according to God’s established order.

• Genesis 8:22: “As long as the earth endures, seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and winter, day and night will never cease.” This verse suggests that God has ordained natural processes that continue reliably, a concept that contrasts with the occasionalist view of God directly causing every event.
• Psalm 104:14: “He makes grass grow for the cattle, and plants for people to cultivate—bringing forth food from the earth.” Here, God is acknowledged as the ultimate cause, but natural processes (like growing and cultivation) are also recognized as secondary causes within God’s created order.

Protestant Perspective on Occasionalism

Reformed Theology and Divine Sovereignty

Reformed theology places a strong emphasis on the sovereignty of God, affirming that God is in control of all things. However, Reformed thinkers generally do not adopt the full occasionalist view, instead affirming that God uses secondary causes to achieve His purposes.

• Westminster Confession of Faith (1646): The Westminster Confession articulates a view that balances divine sovereignty with the reality of secondary causes: “God from all eternity did, by the most wise and holy counsel of his own will, freely and unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to pass: yet so, as thereby neither is God the author of sin, nor is violence offered to the will of the creatures; nor is the liberty or contingency of second causes taken away, but rather established.”
  • Proverbs 16:9: “In their hearts humans plan their course, but the Lord establishes their steps.” This reflects the Reformed view that while humans have free will and can act as secondary causes, God ultimately directs the outcomes.

Critique of Pure Occasionalism

Many Protestant theologians critique Occasionalism for potentially undermining the consistency of natural laws and the rational order of creation, which are also seen as part of God’s design.

• Romans 1:20: “For since the creation of the world God’s invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse.” This passage highlights that the natural world reveals God’s attributes, suggesting that natural laws and processes are part of God’s self-revelation rather than mere occasions for divine intervention.

Practical Implications of Occasionalism in Christian Life

Understanding God’s Providence

Occasionalism, when tempered with the acknowledgment of secondary causes, can deepen the understanding of God’s providence—His active, sustaining involvement in the world.

• Matthew 6:26: “Look at the birds of the air; they do not sow or reap or store away in barns, and yet your heavenly Father feeds them. Are you not much more valuable than they?” This teaching of Jesus reflects the belief that God is intimately involved in providing for creation, an idea that resonates with occasionalist thought.

Trust in God’s Sovereignty

Believers who embrace aspects of Occasionalism are encouraged to trust in God’s sovereignty, recognizing that God is ultimately in control of all events, even those that appear to be governed by natural causes.

• Romans 8:28: “And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose.” This verse encourages Christians to trust that God is at work in all circumstances, aligning with the occasionalist view of God’s direct involvement in the world.

Conclusion

From a Christian worldview, Occasionalism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes God’s direct causality in all events, positing that what we perceive as natural causes are merely occasions for God to act. While the doctrine has roots in Islamic philosophy and was further developed by Christian philosophers like Nicolas Malebranche, it has been both influential and controversial within Christian thought.

Biblically, occasionalist ideas can be supported by passages that affirm God’s active role in sustaining and governing the universe. However, traditional Christian theology, especially within the Protestant tradition, also affirms the role of secondary causes, seeing them as part of God’s ordained order.

Theologically, Occasionalism raises important questions about the nature of divine sovereignty, the role of natural laws, and the way God interacts with His creation. While some aspects of Occasionalism resonate with Christian beliefs about God’s providence and miracles, the doctrine must be balanced with the recognition of God’s use of secondary causes to maintain the consistency and order of the natural world.

Practically, an understanding of God’s direct involvement in the world encourages Christians to trust in His sovereignty and care, while also recognizing the value of natural processes as part of God’s creation.