Historical Development of the Ontological Argument

St. Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109)

The Ontological Argument was first formulated by St. Anselm, an 11th-century Christian theologian and philosopher, in his work Proslogion.

• Anselm’s Formulation: Anselm defined God as “that than which nothing greater can be conceived.” He argued that the concept of God must include existence, because a God who exists is greater than a God who does not exist. Therefore, if God can be conceived, He must exist in reality.
  • Proslogion 2: Anselm wrote, “And certainly that than which a greater cannot be conceived cannot exist in the understanding alone. For if it exists in the understanding alone, it can be conceived to exist in reality, which is greater.”
• Anselm’s Prayer: Anselm’s argument is presented within a prayer, demonstrating his view that faith and reason are interconnected. His intent was to deepen the understanding of God’s nature, which he believed would inevitably lead to the conclusion of God’s existence.

The Ontological Argument Explained

Anselm’s Formulation

Anselm’s Ontological Argument, presented in his work Proslogion, is typically summarized as follows:

1. Definition of God: God is defined as “that than which nothing greater can be conceived.”
2. Conceptual Existence: This greatest conceivable being exists in the mind (conceptually).
3. Existence in Reality: A being that exists in reality is greater than one that exists only in the mind.
4. Necessary Conclusion: Therefore, if God exists in the mind, He must also exist in reality; otherwise, God would not be the greatest conceivable being, which is a contradiction.

Modern Formulations

Modern philosophers, such as Alvin Plantinga, have offered more refined versions of the Ontological Argument. Plantinga’s modal version involves the concept of possible worlds and necessary existence:

1. Possible World: There is a possible world in which a maximally great being (God) exists.
2. Maximal Greatness: A maximally great being is defined as one that possesses all great-making properties (omniscience, omnipotence, moral perfection, etc.) to the maximum possible degree.
3. Necessary Existence: If a maximally great being exists in any possible world, it must exist in every possible world, including the actual world.
4. Conclusion: Therefore, a maximally great being exists in the actual world.

Criticism and Development

Anselm’s Ontological Argument has been both criticized and developed by subsequent philosophers and theologians.

• Gaunilo’s Critique: A contemporary of Anselm, Gaunilo of Marmoutiers, challenged the argument by proposing a parody, famously using the example of a “perfect island.” He argued that just because one can conceive of a perfect island does not mean it must exist. This criticism aimed to show that Anselm’s logic might be flawed.
  • Gaunilo’s On Behalf of the Fool: Gaunilo’s critique is often referred to as “On Behalf of the Fool,” referencing the Psalmist’s words, “The fool says in his heart, ‘There is no God’” (Psalm 14:1). Gaunilo used this title to suggest that the logic of the Ontological Argument might lead to absurd conclusions if applied elsewhere.
• René Descartes (1596-1650): The French philosopher René Descartes reformulated the Ontological Argument in his Meditations on First Philosophy. Descartes argued that the existence of a perfect being is as self-evident as the truths of mathematics.
  • Meditations 5: Descartes wrote, “But if I examine more closely whether there is anything else in my thought which can clarify it further, I find that I possess an idea of God, that is, of a supremely perfect being, and I see clearly that existence can no more be separated from the essence of God than can having its three angles equal to two right angles be separated from the essence of a triangle.”
• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): The German philosopher Immanuel Kant famously criticized the Ontological Argument, arguing that existence is not a predicate or a quality that can be attributed to a being. Kant’s critique is considered one of the most significant challenges to the Ontological Argument.
  • Critique of Pure Reason: Kant argued that existence does not add anything to the concept of a being. For example, the concept of a hundred real thalers (coins) does not differ from the concept of a hundred possible thalers; therefore, one cannot prove existence simply by defining it as part of a concept.
• Contemporary Discussions: In modern philosophy, the Ontological Argument has been revisited by thinkers such as Alvin Plantinga, who developed a version based on modal logic. Plantinga’s argument considers the possibility of a maximally great being, concluding that if such a being is possible, it must exist in all possible worlds, including our own.
  • Alvin Plantinga’s Modal Ontological Argument: Plantinga’s version of the argument uses the framework of possible worlds to argue that if it is possible that a maximally great being exists, then it exists in some possible world, and if it exists in some possible world, it exists in every possible world, including the actual world.

Biblical Reflections Related to the Ontological Argument

While the Ontological Argument is a philosophical construct, it has parallels in biblical teachings that emphasize the greatness and necessity of God.

The Greatness of God

The Bible frequently speaks of God as the greatest conceivable being, a theme that resonates with the Ontological Argument.

• Psalm 145:3: “Great is the Lord and most worthy of praise; his greatness no one can fathom.” This verse underscores the incomprehensible greatness of God, which is central to Anselm’s concept of God as “that than which nothing greater can be conceived.”
• Isaiah 40:25-26: “‘To whom will you compare me? Or who is my equal?’ says the Holy One. Lift up your eyes and look to the heavens: Who created all these? He who brings out the starry host one by one and calls forth each of them by name. Because of his great power and mighty strength, not one of them is missing.” This passage reflects the uniqueness and unparalleled greatness of God, echoing the ontological assertion of God’s supreme nature.

The Necessity of God’s Existence

The Bible also presents God as necessarily existing, not contingent upon anything else, which aligns with the core idea of the Ontological Argument.

• Exodus 3:14: “God said to Moses, ‘I AM WHO I AM. This is what you are to say to the Israelites: “I AM has sent me to you.”’” God’s self-identification as “I AM” reflects the idea of God as a necessary being, whose existence is inherent and not dependent on anything else.
• Acts 17:28: “For in him we live and move and have our being.” Paul’s address to the Athenians highlights the dependence of all creation on the existence of God, affirming the necessity of God as the foundation of all being.

The Incomparable Nature of God

The Bible consistently affirms that no being can be compared to God, a concept central to the Ontological Argument’s definition of God.

• Psalm 86:8: “Among the gods there is none like you, Lord; no deeds can compare with yours.” This verse asserts the uniqueness and incomparability of God, reinforcing the notion that God is the greatest conceivable being.
• Isaiah 46:9: “Remember the former things, those of long ago; I am God, and there is no other; I am God, and there is none like me.” This passage emphasizes God’s unique nature, which is a foundational assumption of the Ontological Argument.

Theological Implications of the Ontological Argument

Faith and Reason

The Ontological Argument highlights the relationship between faith and reason in Christian theology. Anselm’s argument was not meant to replace faith but to deepen the believer’s understanding of God’s nature.

• Hebrews 11:1: “Now faith is confidence in what we hope for and assurance about what we do not see.” The Ontological Argument can be seen as a rational exploration of the faith Christians already hold, providing a logical basis for the belief in God’s existence.
• 1 Peter 3:15: “But in your hearts revere Christ as Lord. Always be prepared to give an answer to everyone who asks you to give the reason for the hope that you have. But do this with gentleness and respect.” The Ontological Argument is one tool among many that Christians can use to articulate and defend their faith.

The Nature of God

The Ontological Argument emphasizes the nature of God as a being who necessarily exists. This has implications for understanding God’s attributes, such as His omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence.

• Revelation 1:8: “‘I am the Alpha and the Omega,’ says the Lord God, ‘who is, and who was, and who is to come, the Almighty.’” This self-description by God underscores His eternal existence and supreme power, themes central to the Ontological Argument.

Apologetics and Evangelism

The Ontological Argument has been used throughout history as a part of Christian apologetics, providing a rational basis for belief in God’s existence that can be discussed with non-believers.

• 2 Corinthians 10:5: “We demolish arguments and every pretension that sets itself up against the knowledge of God, and we take captive every thought to make it obedient to Christ.” The Ontological Argument serves as a philosophical tool that can be used to engage with skeptical arguments about the existence of God.

Protestant Engagement with the Ontological Argument

Reformed Tradition

In the Reformed tradition, the Ontological Argument is often viewed as compatible with the belief in God’s sovereignty and necessity. However, Reformed theologians also emphasize that belief in God is ultimately a matter of faith granted by the Holy Spirit, not merely the result of philosophical reasoning.

• John Calvin (1509-1564): Calvin emphasized the innate knowledge of God (sensus divinitatis) present in all people, which leads them to acknowledge God’s existence. While not directly engaging with the Ontological Argument, Calvin’s views on natural theology provide a framework for understanding it within the Reformed tradition.
  • Romans 1:20: “For since the creation of the world God’s invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that people are without excuse.” This passage supports the idea that knowledge of God is accessible to all, providing a basis for natural theology.

Lutheran Perspective

Lutheran theology, while acknowledging the value of philosophical arguments, often emphasizes the primacy of Scripture and the necessity of faith. The Ontological Argument may be seen as an interesting philosophical exercise, but Lutherans typically stress that true knowledge of God comes through revelation in Christ.

• Martin Luther (1483-1546): Luther was cautious about relying too heavily on human reason to understand God, preferring to focus on the revealed Word of God as the primary source of knowledge about God’s nature and existence.
  • 1 Corinthians 2:14: “The person without the Spirit does not accept the things that come from the Spirit of God but considers them foolishness, and cannot understand them because they are discerned only through the Spirit.” Luther’s emphasis on the role of the Holy Spirit in understanding divine truths aligns with a more cautious approach to purely philosophical arguments like the Ontological Argument.

Criticisms and Responses

While the Ontological Argument is compelling to some, it has faced various criticisms. Here are a few common objections and responses from a Christian perspective:

Criticism: The Argument is Circular or Question-Begging

Objection: Critics argue that the Ontological Argument assumes what it seeks to prove, namely that God’s existence is inherent in the concept of God.

Response: Proponents respond that the argument does not assume God’s existence but rather explores the logical implications of the concept of a maximally great being. If such a being is conceivable, its necessary existence follows logically.

Criticism: Existence is Not a Predicate

Objection: Immanuel Kant famously argued that existence is not a predicate or property that makes a being greater. Simply defining God as existing does not prove His existence in reality.

Response: Supporters of the argument, such as Alvin Plantinga, clarify that the argument does not treat existence as a mere property but as a necessary aspect of a maximally great being. If it is possible for such a being to exist, then it must exist in all possible worlds, including the actual world.

Criticism: Conceivability Does Not Imply Actuality

Objection: Some argue that just because we can conceive of a maximally great being does not mean that such a being exists in reality.

Response: The argument relies on modal logic, which deals with possibility and necessity. If a maximally great being is possible (exists in some possible world), its necessity means it exists in all possible worlds. The argument is not merely about conceivability but about the logical implications of such a being’s nature.

The Ontological Argument is a philosophical argument for the existence of God that is rooted in the concept of being. It is an a priori argument, meaning it is based on reasoning rather than empirical evidence. The argument posits that the very concept of God as the greatest conceivable being implies His existence. This argument has been a significant topic in both philosophy and theology, particularly within the Christian tradition.

Conclusion

From a Christian worldview, the Ontological Argument is a significant philosophical proof for the existence of God, developed initially by St. Anselm and later refined by other theologians and philosophers. It posits that the very concept of God as the greatest conceivable being implies His existence.

Biblically, the argument aligns with scriptural affirmations of God’s greatness, necessity, and incomparability. While the argument is philosophical in nature, it reflects key theological truths about the nature of God as revealed in the Bible.

Historically, the Ontological Argument has been both influential and controversial, sparking debates that have shaped the development of Christian theology and philosophy. Protestant traditions engage with the argument in different ways, often emphasizing that while philosophical reasoning can support belief in God, true knowledge of God comes through revelation and faith.

Ultimately, the Ontological Argument serves as a tool within Christian apologetics, providing a rational basis for the belief in God’s existence and encouraging deeper reflection on the nature of the divine.