The Septuagint is an ancient Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures (the Old Testament), which holds significant historical and theological importance in Christianity. The term “Septuagint” comes from the Latin word septuaginta, meaning “seventy,” a reference to the tradition that seventy (or seventy-two) Jewish scholars worked on the translation. The Septuagint is often abbreviated as LXX, reflecting this tradition. It is especially notable for its influence on early Christianity, including its use by the writers of the New Testament.

Historical Development of the Septuagint

Origin and Translation Process

The Septuagint was translated in the 3rd to 2nd centuries BC, during the Hellenistic period, when Greek was the lingua franca of the Eastern Mediterranean.

• Ptolemaic Alexandria: The translation is traditionally said to have been commissioned by Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Greek ruler of Egypt, for inclusion in the Library of Alexandria. This historical account is found in the Letter of Aristeas, a document that, while not entirely reliable as history, offers insight into the origins of the Septuagint.
• Jewish Diaspora: The translation was intended for Greek-speaking Jews in the diaspora, particularly those in Alexandria, who were no longer fluent in Hebrew. The Septuagint allowed them to read and understand their Scriptures in their everyday language.

Canonical Content and Structure

The Septuagint includes translations of all the books found in the Hebrew Bible, as well as additional texts that are not in the traditional Hebrew canon but are included in the Septuagint. These additional texts are known as the Deuterocanonical books in the Catholic and Orthodox traditions or the Apocrypha in Protestant traditions.

• Pentateuch: The first section of the Septuagint, the Pentateuch, includes the first five books of Moses—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. This section was likely the first to be translated.
• Historical Books: The Septuagint also contains historical books such as Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and the Books of Samuel and Kings. It includes additional texts like the Books of the Maccabees and the Book of Judith.
• Wisdom Literature: Wisdom literature in the Septuagint includes the Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Wisdom of Solomon, as well as Sirach (Ecclesiasticus).
• Prophets: The prophetic books, including Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Twelve Minor Prophets, are also part of the Septuagint. The Book of Daniel in the Septuagint includes additional sections not found in the Hebrew text, such as the Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Holy Children.

Influence on Early Christianity

The Septuagint was widely used by early Christians, particularly in the Greek-speaking world. It became the primary version of the Old Testament used by the early church.

• New Testament Citations: Many Old Testament quotations in the New Testament are drawn from the Septuagint. This is significant because it means that the theological concepts and wording of the Septuagint influenced the way the New Testament writers understood and communicated their message.
  • Isaiah 7:14 (LXX) and Matthew 1:23: The Septuagint’s translation of Isaiah 7:14 uses the word “virgin” (Greek: parthenos), which Matthew references when describing the virgin birth of Jesus: “The virgin will conceive and give birth to a son, and they will call him Immanuel” (Matthew 1:23). This interpretation played a crucial role in early Christian Christology.
  • Psalm 95:7-8 (LXX) and Hebrews 3:7-11: The author of Hebrews quotes the Septuagint version of Psalm 95, emphasizing the warning against hardening one’s heart, which is foundational to the epistle’s exhortation to faithfulness.
• Theological Development: The Septuagint also shaped early Christian theology, particularly in the development of Christology, soteriology, and ecclesiology. The Greek terminology and phrasing influenced how key doctrines were formulated.
• Church Fathers: Early church fathers, such as Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Clement of Alexandria, frequently quoted the Septuagint in their writings. It was often seen as authoritative, especially in contexts where the Hebrew text was less accessible or understood.

The Septuagint in the Early Church

The Septuagint was widely accepted and used in the early church, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic traditions. However, its use became more controversial with the rise of the Jewish-Christian divide and the preference of Rabbinic Judaism for the Hebrew Masoretic Text.

• The Latin Vulgate: In the Western Church, the Latin Vulgate, translated by Jerome in the late 4th century, became the standard text. Jerome translated much of the Old Testament directly from the Hebrew, but he also relied on the Septuagint for some books, particularly those of the Apocrypha/Deuterocanonicals.
• Protestant Reformation: During the Reformation, Protestant reformers generally preferred translations based on the Hebrew Masoretic Text over the Septuagint. The Reformers tended to exclude the Deuterocanonical books, which were part of the Septuagint but not the Hebrew canon, from their Bibles, leading to differences in the biblical canon among Christian traditions.

Biblical Foundations and Theological Significance

The Inspiration and Authority of the Septuagint

For early Christians, the Septuagint was regarded as divinely inspired and authoritative, on par with the Hebrew Scriptures.

• 2 Timothy 3:16-17: “All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, so that the servant of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.” Early Christians understood “Scripture” to include the Septuagint, which they used extensively for teaching and doctrine.

The Role of the Septuagint in the Formation of Christian Doctrine

The Septuagint played a crucial role in shaping early Christian doctrine, particularly in the understanding of messianic prophecies and the nature of God.

• Christological Interpretations: The Septuagint’s translation choices, such as the use of “virgin” in Isaiah 7:14, had a profound impact on the development of Christian doctrines concerning the incarnation and the virgin birth of Jesus.
• Typology and Fulfillment: The Septuagint’s translation often highlighted typological connections between the Old and New Testaments, which early Christians used to demonstrate the fulfillment of prophecy in Jesus.

Theological and Doctrinal Disputes

The differences between the Septuagint and the Hebrew Masoretic Text have led to some theological and doctrinal debates, particularly regarding the interpretation of certain passages.

• Psalm 22:16 (LXX) vs. Masoretic Text: The Septuagint renders Psalm 22:16 as “They pierced my hands and my feet,” which Christians have historically interpreted as a prophecy of the crucifixion. The Hebrew text, however, is less clear, translating as “like a lion, my hands and feet.” This difference has been a point of discussion in both Jewish and Christian exegesis.

Theological Implications of the Septuagint

The Relationship Between the Old and New Testaments

The Septuagint underscores the continuity between the Old and New Testaments, highlighting how the early church saw the Hebrew Scriptures as fulfilled in Christ.

• Romans 15:4: “For everything that was written in the past was written to teach us, so that through the endurance taught in the Scriptures and the encouragement they provide we might have hope.” The early Christians read the Septuagint as pointing forward to the fulfillment of God’s promises in Christ.

The Universal Reach of the Gospel

The translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek reflects the expanding mission of God’s people to the Gentiles, which is a theme taken up in the New Testament.

• Acts 13:47: “For this is what the Lord has commanded us: ‘I have made you a light for the Gentiles, that you may bring salvation to the ends of the earth.’” The use of the Greek Septuagint in the early church was part of this broader mission to reach the Gentiles with the message of salvation.

Practical Applications of the Septuagint

Bible Translation and Interpretation

The Septuagint serves as a model for how the Scriptures can be translated and contextualized for different cultures and languages, making God’s Word accessible to all people.

• Missionary Work: The translation of the Bible into various languages continues to be a priority for Christian missions, following the example of the Septuagint, which made the Scriptures accessible to Greek-speaking Jews and Gentiles.

The Use of Scripture in Worship and Liturgy

The Septuagint has had a lasting influence on Christian worship and liturgy, particularly in traditions that use Greek or include readings from the Deuterocanonical books.

• Lectionaries: Many Christian liturgical traditions, particularly in the Eastern Orthodox Church, use lectionaries that are influenced by the Septuagint, reflecting its ongoing role in worship and devotion.

Conclusion

From a Christian worldview, the Septuagint holds a unique and significant place in the history of the church and the development of Christian theology. As the first major translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, the Septuagint made the Word of God accessible to a broader audience and played a crucial role in the early church’s understanding of the Old Testament. Its influence on the New Testament writers, the church fathers, and the development of Christian doctrine cannot be overstated. The Septuagint underscores the continuity between the Old and New Testaments, the universal reach of the gospel, and the importance of making Scripture accessible to all people. It remains a vital part of Christian heritage, particularly within the Orthodox and Catholic traditions, and continues to be a valuable resource for biblical studies, theology, and worship.